ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network), created by a small research team at the head of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. MIT has five schools and one college, containing a total of 32 academic departments, with a strong emphasis on scientific and technological research. MIT is one of two private land-grant universities[b] and is also a sea-grant and space- and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency is an agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of new technology for use by the military. DARPA has been responsible for funding the development of many technologies which have had a major effect on the world, including computer networking, as well as NLS, which) of the United States Department of Defense The United States Department of Defense is the U.S. federal department charged with coordinating and supervising all agencies and functions of the government relating directly to national security and the United States armed forces. The organization and functions of the DOD are set forth in Title 10 of the United States Code, was the world's first operational packet switching Packet switching is a digital networking communications method that groups all transmitted data – irrespective of content, type, or structure – into suitably-sized blocks, called packets. Packet switching features delivery of variable-bit-rate data streams over a shared network. When traversing network adapters, switches, routers and other network, and the predecessor of the contemporary global Internet The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet Protocol Suite to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope that are linked by a broad array of electronic and. The packet switching of the ARPANET was based on designs by Lawrence Roberts Lawrence G. Roberts received the Draper Prize in 2001 "for the development of the Internet" along with Leonard Kleinrock, Robert Kahn, and Vinton Cerf, of the Lincoln Laboratory MIT Lincoln Laboratory, located in Lexington, Massachusetts, is a United States Department of Defense research and development center chartered to apply advanced technology to problems of national security. Research and development activities focus on long-term technology development as well as rapid system prototyping and demonstration. These.[1]

Packet switching Packet switching is a digital networking communications method that groups all transmitted data – irrespective of content, type, or structure – into suitably-sized blocks, called packets. Packet switching features delivery of variable-bit-rate data streams over a shared network. When traversing network adapters, switches, routers and other, now the dominant basis for data communications worldwide, then was a new and important concept. Data communications had been based upon the idea of circuit switching In telecommunications, a circuit switching network is one that establishes a circuit between nodes and terminals before the users may communicate, as if the nodes were physically connected with an electrical circuit, as in the old, typical telephone circuit, wherein a dedicated circuit is occupied for the duration of the telephone call, and communication is possible only with the single party at the far end of the circuit.

With packet switching, a data system could use one communications link to communicate with more than one machine by disassembling data into datagrams A datagram is a basic transfer unit associated with a packet-switched network in which the delivery, arrival time and order are not guaranteed. A datagram consists of header and data areas, where the header contains information sufficient for routing from the originating equipment to the destination without relying on prior exchanges between the, then gather these as packets In information technology, a packet is a formatted unit of data carried by a packet mode computer network. Computer communications links that do not support packets, such as traditional point-to-point telecommunications links, simply transmit data as a series of bytes, characters, or bits alone. When data is formatted into packets, the bitrate of. Thus, not only could the link be shared (much as a single post box A post box is a physical box intended for use by the general public in order to collect outgoing mail (mail sent to a destination). The term Post box can also refer to a private letter box for incoming mail can be used to post letters to different destinations), but each packet could be routed independently of other packets.

Contents

History

For more details on this topic, see History of the Internet Before the wide spread of internetworking that led to the Internet, most communication networks were limited by their nature to only allow communications between the stations on the local network and the prevalent computer networking method was based on the central mainframe computer model. Several research programs began to explore and articulate.

The earliest ideas for a computer network intended to allow general communications among computer users were formulated by the computer scientist Computer science or computing science is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation, and of practical techniques for their implementation and application in computer systems. It is frequently described as the systematic study of algorithmic processes that create, describe, and transform information. Computer science J. C. R. Licklider Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider , known simply as J.C.R. or "Lick" was an American computer scientist, considered one of the most important figures in computer science and general computing history, of the Bolt, Beranek and Newman BBN Technologies is a high-technology company which provides research and development services. BBN is based next to Fresh Pond in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA. It is perhaps best known for its work in the development of packet switching (including the ARPANET and the Internet) and for its 1978 acoustical analysis for the House Select Committee (BBN) company, in August 1962, in memoranda discussing his concept for an “Intergalactic Computer Network”. Those ideas contained almost everything that composes the contemporary Internet The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet Protocol Suite to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope that are linked by a broad array of electronic and. In October 1963, at the United States Department of Defense The United States Department of Defense is the U.S. federal department charged with coordinating and supervising all agencies and functions of the government relating directly to national security and the United States armed forces. The organization and functions of the DOD are set forth in Title 10 of the United States Code, Licklider was appointed head of the Behavioral Sciences and Command and Control programs, at the Advanced Research Projects Agency — ARPA The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency is an agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of new technology for use by the military. DARPA has been responsible for funding the development of many technologies which have had a major effect on the world, including computer networking, as well as NLS, which (the initial ARPANET acronym). He then convinced Ivan Sutherland Ivan Edward Sutherland is an American computer scientist and Internet pioneer. He received the Turing Award from the Association for Computing Machinery in 1988 for the invention of Sketchpad, an early predecessor to the sort of graphical user interface that has become ubiquitous in personal computers and Bob Taylor that this computer network concept was very important, meriting development, although he left ARPANET before anyone worked on his concept. ARPA and Bob Taylor continued their interest in creating such a computer communications network, in part, to allow ARPA-sponsored researchers at various corporate A corporation is an institution that is granted a charter recognizing it as a separate legal entity having its own privileges, and liabilities distinct from those of its members. There are many different forms of corporations, most of which are used to conduct business and academic A university is an institution of higher education and research, which grants academic degrees in a variety of subjects. A university is a corporation that provides both undergraduate education and postgraduate education. The word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, roughly meaning "community of locales to put to use the computers ARPA was providing them, and, in part, to make new software and other computer science Computer science or computing science is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation, and of practical techniques for their implementation and application in computer systems. It is frequently described as the systematic study of algorithmic processes that create, describe, and transform information. Computer science results quickly and widely available. In his office, Taylor had three different computer terminals, each connected to three different computers, which ARPA was funding: the first, for the System Development Corporation System Development Corporation , based in Santa Monica, California, was arguably the world's first computer software company.[citation needed] (SDC) Q-32 The Q-32 was installed at System Development Corporation headquarters, Santa Monica, California and was used as a development machine for the compiler and operational software for the AN/FSQ-31V, which was used as the Data Processing Element of the SAC Automated Command and Control System, in Santa Monica Santa Monica is a city in western Los Angeles County, California, USA. Situated on Santa Monica Bay, it is surrounded on three sides by the city of Los Angeles — Pacific Palisades on the northwest, Brentwood on the north, West Los Angeles on the northeast, Mar Vista on the east, and Venice on the southeast; the second, for Project Genie Project Genie was a computer research project started in 1964 at the University of California, Berkeley by J.C.R. Licklider, the head of DARPA at that time. The project was a smaller counterpart to MIT's Project MAC, at the University of California, Berkeley The University of California, Berkeley , is a public research university located in Berkeley, California, United States. The oldest of the ten major campuses affiliated with the University of California, Berkeley offers some 300 undergraduate and graduate degree programs in a wide range of disciplines. The university occupies 6,651 acres (2,692 ha); and the third, for Multics Multics was an extremely influential early time-sharing operating system. The project was started in 1964. The last known running Multics installation was shut down on October 30, 2000 at the Canadian Department of National Defense in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, at MIT The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. MIT has five schools and one college, containing a total of 32 academic departments, with a strong emphasis on scientific and technological research. MIT is one of two private land-grant universities[b] and is also a sea-grant and space-. Taylor recalls the circumstance: "For each of these three terminals, I had three different sets of user commands. So, if I was talking online with someone at S.D.C., and I wanted to talk to someone I knew at Berkeley, or M.I.T., about this, I had to get up from the S.D.C. terminal, go over and log into the other terminal and get in touch with them. I said, “Oh Man!”, it’s obvious what to do: If you have these three terminals, there ought to be one terminal that goes anywhere you want to go. That idea is the ARPANET".[2] Somewhat contemporaneously, several other people had (mostly independently) worked out the aspects of “packet switching”, with the first public demonstration presented by the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), on 5 August 1968, in the United Kingdom .[3]

Creation

By mid-1968, Taylor had prepared a complete plan for a computer network, and, after ARPA’s approval, a Request For Quotation A request for quotation is a standard business process whose purpose is to invite suppliers into a bidding process to bid on specific products or services (RFQ) was sent to 140 potential bidders. Most computer science companies regarded the ARPA–Taylor proposal as outlandish, and only twelve submitted bids to build the network; of the twelve, ARPA regarded only four as top-rank contractors. At year’s end, ARPA considered only two contractors, and awarded the contract to build the network to BBN Technologies BBN Technologies is a high-technology company which provides research and development services. BBN is based next to Fresh Pond in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA. It is perhaps best known for its work in the development of packet switching (including the ARPANET and the Internet) and for its 1978 acoustical analysis for the House Select Committee on 7 April 1969. The initial, seven-man BBN team were much aided by the technical specificity of their response to the ARPA RFQ — and thus quickly produced the first working computers. The BBN-proposed network closely followed Taylor’s ARPA plan: a network composed of small IMP computers, Interface Message Processors The Interface Message Processor was the packet-switching node used to interconnect participant networks to the ARPANET from the late 1960s to 1989. It was the first generation of gateways, which are known today as routers. An IMP was a ruggedized Honeywell DDP-516 minicomputer with special-purpose interfaces and software. In later years the IMPs (contemporary routers A router is a device that interconnects two or more computer networks, and selectively interchanges packets of data between them. Each data packet contains address information that a router can use to determine if the source and destination are on the same network, or if the data packet must be transferred from one network to another. Where). At each site, the IMPs performed store-and-forward packet switching functions, and were interconnected with modems A modem is a device that modulates an analog carrier signal to encode digital information, and also demodulates such a carrier signal to decode the transmitted information. The goal is to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded to reproduce the original digital data. Modems can be used over any means of transmitting analog that were connected to leased lines A leased line is a symmetric telecommunications line connecting two locations. It is sometimes known as a 'Private Circuit' or 'Data Line' in the UK. Unlike traditional PSTN lines it does not have a telephone number, each side of the line being permanently connected to the other. Leased lines can be used for telephone, data or Internet services (initially running at 50 kbit A kilobit is an expression of grouped bits meaning 1,000 bits. Use of the term to denote a kibibit, although the most common use due to the nature of bits (binary digits), is deprecated and contrary to international standard/second). The host computers were connected to the IMPs via custom serial In telecommunication and computer science, serial communication is the process of sending data one bit at one time, sequentially, over a communication channel or computer bus. This is in contrast to parallel communication, where several bits are sent together, on a link with several parallel channels. Serial communication is used for all long-haul interfaces connecting to the ARPANET. The system, including the hardware and the packet switching software, was designed and installed in nine months. To build the first-generation IMPs, BBN Technologies initially used a rugged computer version of the Honeywell Honeywell (legally Honeywell International Inc.) is a major conglomerate company that produces a variety of consumer products, engineering services, and aerospace systems for a wide variety of customers, from private consumers to major corporations and governments DDP-516 computer (originally) configured with 24 kB The kilobyte is a multiple of the unit byte for digital information storage or transmission. One kilobyte is most often 1024 bytes of (expandable) core memory, and a 16-channel Direct Multiplex Control (DMC) direct memory access Direct memory access is a feature of modern computers and microprocessors that allows certain hardware subsystems within the computer to access system memory for reading and/or writing independently of the central processing unit. Many hardware systems use DMA including disk drive controllers, graphics cards, network cards and sound cards. DMA is control unit.[4] The DMC established custom interfaces with each of the host computers and modems. In addition to the front-panel lamps, the DDP-516 computer also features a special set of 24 indicator-lamps showing the status of the IMP communication channels. Each IMP could support up to four local hosts, and could communicate with up to six remote IMPs via leased lines.

ARPA deployed

Historical document: First ARPANET IMP log: the first message ever sent via the ARPANET, 10:30 PM, 29 October 1969. This IMP Log excerpt, kept at UCLA, describes setting up a message transmission from the UCLA SDS Sigma 7 Host computer to the SRI SDS 940 Host computer

The initial ARPANET consisted of four IMPs The Interface Message Processor was the packet-switching node used to interconnect participant networks to the ARPANET from the late 1960s to 1989. It was the first generation of gateways, which are known today as routers. An IMP was a ruggedized Honeywell DDP-516 minicomputer with special-purpose interfaces and software. In later years the IMPs installed at:

  1. University of California, Los Angeles The University of California, Los Angeles is a public research university located in the Westwood neighborhood of Los Angeles, California, United States. It was founded in 1919 and is the second oldest of the ten campuses affiliated with the University of California system. UCLA offers over 300 undergraduate and graduate degree programs in a wide (UCLA), where Leonard Kleinrock Leonard Kleinrock is an engineer and computer scientist, and a computer science professor at UCLA's Henry Samueli School of Engineering, Applied Science, who made several important contributions to the field of computer networking, in particular to the theoretical side of computer networking. He also played an important role in the development of had established a Network Measurement Center, with an SDS Scientific Data Systems, or SDS, was an American computer company founded in September 1961 by Max Palevsky, a veteran of Packard Bell and Bendix, along with eleven other computer scientists. SDS was an early adopter of integrated circuits in computer design and the first to employ silicon transistors. The company concentrated on larger scientific Sigma 7 being the first computer attached to it;
  2. The Stanford Research Institute SRI International, founded as Stanford Research Institute, is one of the world's largest contract research institutes. Based in the United States, the trustees of Stanford University established it in 1946 as a center of innovation to support economic development in the region. It was later incorporated as an independent non-profit organization's Augmentation Research Center Stanford Research Institute's Augmentation Research Center was founded by electrical engineer Douglas Engelbart to develop and experiment with new tools and techniques for collaboration and information processing. The main product to come out of ARC was the revolutionary oN-Line System, better known by its odd abbreviation, NLS. ARC is also known, where Douglas Engelbart Dr. Douglas C. Engelbart is an American inventor and early computer pioneer. He is best known for inventing the computer mouse, as a pioneer of human-computer interaction whose team developed hypertext, networked computers, and precursors to GUIs; and as a committed and vocal proponent of the development and use of computers and networks to help had created the ground-breaking NLS NLS, or the "oN-Line System", was a revolutionary computer collaboration system designed by Douglas Engelbart and the researchers at the Augmentation Research Center at the Stanford Research Institute (SRI) during the 1960s. The NLS system was the first to employ the practical use of hypertext links, the mouse (co-invented by Engelbart system, a very important early hypertext Hypertext is text displayed on a computer or other electronic device with references to other text that the reader can immediately access, usually by a mouse click or keypress sequence. Apart from running text, hypertext may contain tables, images and other presentational devices. Hypertext is the underlying concept defining the structure of the system (with the SDS 940 that ran NLS, named "Genie", being the first host attached);
  3. University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB), with the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Centre's IBM 360/75, running OS/MVT being the machine attached;
  4. The University of Utah's Computer Science Department, where Ivan Sutherland had moved, running a DEC PDP-10 running TENEX.

The first message transmitted over the ARPANET was sent by UCLA student programmer Charley Kline, at 10:30 p.m, on October 29, 1969. Supervised by Prof. Leonard Kleinrock, Kline transmitted from the university's SDS Sigma 7 Host computer to the Stanford Research Institute's SDS 940 Host computer. The message text was the word "login"; the "l" and the "o" letters were transmitted, but the system then crashed. Hence, the literal first message over the ARPANET was "lo". About an hour later, having recovered from the crash, the SDS Sigma 7 computer effected a full "login". The first permanent ARPANET link was established on November 21, 1969, between the IMP at UCLA and the IMP at the Stanford Research Institute. By December 5, 1969, the entire four-node network was connected.[5]

The contents of the first e-mail transmission in 1971 have been forgotten; in the Frequently Asked Questions section of his Web site, the sender, Ray Tomlinson, who sent the message between two computers sitting side-by-side, claims that the contents were "entirely forgettable, and I have, therefore, forgotten them", and speculates that the message likely was "QWERTYUIOP" or some such.[6]

Software & protocols

The starting point for host-to-host communication on the ARPANET was the 1822 protocol, which defined how a host computer transmitted messages to an ARPANET IMP. The message format was designed to work unambiguously with a broad range of computer architectures. An 1822 message essentially consisted of (i) a message type, (ii) a numeric host address, and (iii) a data field. To send a data message to another host, the transmitting host would format a data message containing the destination host's address and the data message being sent, and then transmit the message through the 1822 hardware interface. The IMP then delivered the message to its destination address, either by delivering it to a locally connected host, or by delivering it to another IMP. When the message was ultimately delivered to the destination host, the receiving IMP would transmit a Ready for Next Message (RFNM) acknowledgement to the sending, host IMP.

Unlike modern Internet datagrams, the ARPANET was designed to reliably transmit 1822 messages, and to inform the host computer when it loses a message; the contemporary IP is unreliable, whereas the TCP is reliable. Nonetheless, the 1822 protocol proved inadequate for handling multiple connections among different applications residing in a host computer. This problem was addressed with the Network Control Program (NCP), which provided a standard method to establish reliable, flow-controlled, bidirectional communications links among different processes in different host computers. The NCP interface allowed application software to connect across the ARPANET by implementing higher-level communication protocols, an early example of the protocol layering concept incorporated to the OSI model. In 1983, TCP/IP protocols replaced NCP as the ARPANET’s principal protocol, and the ARPANET then became one component of the early Internet.

Network Applications

NCP provided a standard set of network services that could be shared by several applications running on a single host computer. This led to the evolution of application protocols that operated, more or less, independently of the underlying network service. When the ARPANET migrated to the Internet protocols in 1983, the major application protocols migrated with it.

Growth

In March, 1970, the ARPANET reached the east coast of the United States, when a BBN company IMP was connected to the network. Thereafter, the ARPANET grew: 9 IMPs by June 1970 and 13 IMPs by December 1970, then 18 by September 1971 (when the network included 23 university and government hosts); 29 IMPs by August 1972, and 40 by September, 1973. By June 1974, there were 46 IMPs, and in July 1975, the network numbered 57 IMPs. By 1981, the number was 213 host computers, with another host connecting approximately every twenty days.

In 1968, two satellite links, traversing the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, to Hawaii and Norway, one, the Norwegian Seismic Array (NORSAR), were connected to the ARPANET. Moreover, from Norway, a terrestrial circuit added a London IMP to the network in 1973.

Given that its primary function was funding research and development, the ARPA, in 1975, transferred ARPANET control to the Defense Communications Agency, a component of the U.S. Department of Defense. In 1983, the U.S. military sub-networks of the ARPANET became the discrete Military Network (MILNET) for unclassified defense department communications; separating the civil and military networks reduced the 113-node ARPANET by 68 nodes.

Development: hardware

Support for inter-IMP circuits of up to 230.4 kbit/s was added in 1970, although considerations of cost and IMP processing power meant this capability was not actively used.

1971 saw the start of the use of the non-ruggedized (and therefore significantly lighter) Honeywell 316 as an IMP. It could also be configured as a Terminal IMP (TIP), which added support for up to 63 ASCII serial terminals through a multi-line controller in place of one of the hosts. The 316 featured a greater degree of integration than the 516, which made it less expensive and easier to maintain. The 316 was configured with 40 kB of core memory for a TIP. The size of core memory was later increased, to 32 kB for the IMPs, and 56 kB for TIPs, in 1973.

In 1975, BBC introduced IMP software running on the Pluribus multi-processor. These appeared in a small number of sites. In 1981, BBC introduced IMP software running on its own C/30 processor product.

The original IMPs and TIPs were phased out as the ARPANET was shut down after the introduction of the NSFNet, but some IMPs remained in service as late as 1989.

Senator Albert Gore, Jr. began to craft the High Performance Computing and Communication Act of 1991 (commonly referred to as "The Gore Bill") after hearing the 1988 report toward a National Research Network submitted to Congress by a group chaired by UCLA professor of computer science, Leonard Kleinrock, one of the central creators of the ARPANET (the ARPANET, first deployed by Kleinrock and others in 1969, is the predecessor of the Internet). The bill was passed on December 9, 1991 and led to the National Information Infrastructure (NII) which Al Gore called the "information superhighway".

The ARPANET under nuclear attack

Common ARPANET lore posits that the computer network was designed to survive a nuclear attack. In A Brief History of the Internet, the Internet Society describe the coalescing of the technical ideas that produced the ARPANET:

It was from the RAND study that the false rumor started, claiming that the ARPANET was somehow related to building a network resistant to nuclear war. This was never true of the ARPANET, only the unrelated RAND study on secure voice considered nuclear war. However, the later work on Internetting did emphasize robustness and survivability, including the capability to withstand losses of large portions of the underlying networks.[8]

Although the ARPANET was designed to survive subordinate-network losses, the principal reason was that the switching nodes and network links were unreliable, even without any nuclear attacks. About the resources scarcity that spurred the creation of the ARPANET, Charles Herzfeld, ARPA Director (1965–1967), said:

The ARPANET was not started to create a Command and Control System that would survive a nuclear attack, as many now claim. To build such a system was, clearly, a major military need, but it was not ARPA’s mission to do this; in fact, we would have been severely criticized had we tried. Rather, the ARPANET came out of our frustration that there were only a limited number of large, powerful research computers in the country, and that many research investigators, who should have access to them, were geographically separated from them.[9]

Retrospective

The support and management of ARPA contributed to the successful creation of the ARPANET. To wit, the ARPANET Completion Report, jointly published by the BBN company and ARPA, concludes that:

... it is somewhat fitting to end on the note that the ARPANET program has had a strong and direct feedback into the support and strength of computer science, from which the network, itself, sprung. 4

The ARPANET in film and other media

See also

Notes

References

  1. ^ "Living Internet: Lawrence Roberts Manages The ARPANET Program". livinginternet.com. http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_roberts.htm. Retrieved 6 November 2008.
  2. ^ John Markoff (20 December 1999). "An Internet Pioneer Ponders the Next Revolution". The New York Times. http://partners.nytimes.com/library/tech/99/12/biztech/articles/122099outlook-bobb.html. Retrieved 20 September 2008.
  3. ^ "The accelerator of the modern age". BBC News. 5 August 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/7541123.stm. Retrieved 19 May 2009.
  4. ^ "Honeywell DDP-516", Old-Computers.com, retrieved 21 September 2008
  5. ^ Chris Sutton. "Internet Began 35 Years Ago at UCLA with First Message Ever Sent Between Two Computers". UCLA. Archived from the original on 2008-03-08. http://web.archive.org/web/20080308120314/http://www.engineer.ucla.edu/stories/2004/Internet35.htm.
  6. ^ Ray Tomlinson. "The First Network Email". http://openmap.bbn.com/~tomlinso/ray/firstemailframe.html.
  7. ^ The First Network Email Ray Tomlinson
  8. ^ "A Brief History of the Internet". Internet Society. http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml. Retrieved 20 September 2008.
  9. ^ "Charles Herzfeld on ARPANET and Computers". About.com. http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bl_Charles_Herzfeld.htm. Retrieved 21 December 2008.

Further reading

Detailed technical reference works

External links

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Q. You're using it's offspring now to view this question. I'm not quite that old, but man I'm really dating myself with this one. It's how I first learned of networks.
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